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NutrInsight • Satiety: from appetite sciences to food application
Body composition and RMR were also measured periodically. At corresponding time points before, during and following the 12-week intervention objective measures were made of anthropometric, physiological, and behavioural variables. The relationships indicated significant correlations between total daily energy intake and FFM, but not fat mass or BMI (Figure 3). The lean body mass was positively associated with self- determined meal size. The FFM, but not the body fat mass, influenced the within-day profile of hunger and fullness sensations: subjects with higher FFM showed consistently higher levels of hunger and lower levels of fullness over the day. One plausible interpretation of these observations is that the energy required to maintain the body’s lean tissue determines a minimal level of energy intake at meals and over the day. This perspective on the control of appetite has been set out in a new formulation [Blundell et al., 2012].
Further studies confirmed that the body FFM and the 24-h energy expenditure predicted ad libitum food and macronutrient intake in obese humans [Weise et al., 2014]. The lean body mass is a major determinant of the RMR. Recently, a 12-week intervention study in overweight and obese individuals established that the RMR, just as the FFM, is associated with hunger, self-determined meal size, and daily energy intake [Caudwell et al., 2013]. Participants with high RMR exhibited higher levels of hunger across the day and greater food intake than did peers with lower RMR. These effects were independent of sex and food energy density. The RMR, representing energy requirements, largely determined by the FFM, could then represent a physiologic signal for hunger and a major driver of food intake.
Conclusion
Satiation and satiety are inhibitory processes that bring an eating episode to an end, and then prevent further eating until the return of hunger. Their complex mechanisms have been conceptualised in the “Satiety Cascade”. Their inhibitory power depends on an interaction of numerous factors, among which food composition, physiological responses to incoming nutrients, and affective responses to food palatability Satiety should be understood as one set of processes operating in relation to the drive to eat and within a more complex system of appetite control. Among the recent scientific developments of satiety research, studies have addressed brain as well as gut responses, and the assessment of hedonic dimensions. While short-term effects of satiety enhancement in intake and appetite are well documented, longer-term benefits on body weight control and metabolic status remain to be demonstrated, particularly in sensitive populations. The following chapters by four distinguished experts will address these rapidly developing fields of satiety research.
• Satiation has to do with the inhibition of the motivation to eat that occurs during one eating episode.
• Satiety has to do with the inhibition of eating that occurs at the end of one eating episode.
• They represent interactions between the composition of foods,
the physiological responses to eating and the underlying drive to eat.
• The degree of satiety is influenced by a combination of factors in foods (taste and texture, total energy value, proteins, CHos, and fibre) and beliefs.
• The drive to eat arises from energy requirements. Body composition (especially the Fat Free Mass) and the Resting Metabolic Rate determine the drive to eat
and the strength of hunger.
• Different profiles of gastrointestinal peptides are associated with early and late satiety (intensity and duration) but there is no single dominant satiety peptide.
• Satiety is reflected not only in hunger and fullness (homeostatic variables) but also in liking and wanting (hedonic processes).
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Key Points